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Adrenal gland |
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Adrenal glandIn mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are the triangle-shaped endocrine glands that sit atop the kidneys. They are chiefly responsible for regulating the stress response through the synthesis of corticosteroids and catecholamines, including cortisol and adrenalin.OverviewAnatomically, the adrenal gland is situated on the anteriosuperior aspect of the kidney and receives its blood supply from the adrenal arteries. It is separated into two distinct structures, the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex, both of which receive regulatory input from the nervous system. As its name suggests, the adrenal medulla is situated within the adrenal gland, while the adrenal cortex covers its surface. The adrenal medulla is the body's main source of the catecholamine hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine. By contrast, some cells of the adrenal cortex belong to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and are the source of cortisol synthesis. Other cortical cells produce androgens such as testosterone, while some regulate water and electrolyte concentrations by secreting aldosterone. Adrenal medullaComposed mainly of hormone-producing chromaffin cells, the adrenal medulla is the principal site of the conversion of the amino acid tyrosine into the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine (also called adrenaline and noradrenaline, respectively). Medullary cells are derived from the embryonic neural crest and, as such, are simply modified neurons. In particular, they are postganglionic cells of the sympathetic nervous system, receiving innervation from corresponding preganglionic fibers. Moreover, as the synapses between pre- and postganglionic fibers are called ganglia, the adrenal medulla is actually a ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system. In response to stressors such as exercise or imminent danger, medullary cells release catecholamines into the blood in a 70:30 ratio of epinephrine to norepinephrine. Notable effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine include increased heart rate, blood vessel constriction, bronchiole dilation, and increased metabolism, all of which are characteristic of the fight-or-flight response. Adrenal cortex
Situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex mediates the stress response through the production of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, including aldosterone and cortisol. It is also a secondary site of androgen synthesis. The cortex can be divided into three distinct layers of tissue based on cell type and function:
Pregnenolone can then be either dehydrogenated to progesterone or hydroxylated to 17-alpha-hydroxypregnenolone. The steps up to this point occur in many steroid-producing tissues. Subsequent steps, however, only occur in the adrenal cortex.
The primary glucocorticoid released by the adrenal gland is cortisol. Upon binding to its target, cortisol enhances metabolism in several ways:
PathologyAlthough variations of the blood supply to the adrenal glands (and indeed the kidneys themselves) are common, there are usually three arteries that supply each adrenal gland: the superior, middle and inferior suprarenal (or adrenal) arteries. Each (left and right) superior suprarenal artery is a branch of the phrenic artery on that side of the body. The left and right phrenic arteries supply the diaphragm, and come off the aorta. The middle suprarenal artery is a branch directly off the aorta, while the inferior suprarenal artery branches from the aorta or the renal artery. Related topics
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